AI toolkit for arbitrators
determining acceptable, undesirable, and egregious applications in an era of evolving AI regulations
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.52028/rbadr.v7.i14.ART14.INKeywords:
Arbitration, Artificial Intelligence, Arbitrator, Technology, Risks, IntegrationAbstract
Taking into account the rapid development of technology and the swift integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in all aspects of human life, including law and justice and the process of dispute resolution, such as international commercial arbitration (ICA). This article, by adopting a qualitative analytical methodology, analyses whether arbitrators can utilise AI-based large language models and AI agents for their pivotal functions of analysing pleadings, assessing documentary evidence, and legal decision-making. The central thesis of this article is that an arbitrator’s use of AI introduces technological risks, which subsequently generate legal risks in arbitration and thereby jeopardise the arbitrator’s legal duty as well as the enforceability of the award. Thus, this article explores the acceptable, undesirable, and egregious use of AI by arbitrators in ICA. At first, the author establishes the current legal framework of the ICA and the prevailing guidelines for the usage of AI in arbitration. Subsequently, the author critically analyses each such use case, bringing out the technological challenges and the subsequent legal risks that are attached to such usage of AI by the arbitrator in the conduct of arbitral proceedings. Lastly, the author concludes by explaining how arbitrators can safely leverage and integrate the use of AI in arbitration while avoiding its potential risks and challenges.
References
ADULOJU, Bamikole Martins. Chapter 15 Rethinking Costs in International Arbitration. In: [s.l.]: Brill, 2022. Available at: https://brill.com/edcollchap-oa/book/9789004514836/BP000016.xml. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
ARALUCE, Ana Fernández. AI in International Arbitration: Unveiling the Layers of Promise and Peril. Iurgium, v. 2024, n. 49, p. 35–46, 2024.
BAYRAKTAROĞLU-ÖZÇELIK, Gülüm; ÖZÇELIK, Ş Barış. Use of AI-Based Technologies in International Commercial Arbitration. European Journal of Law and Technology, v. 12, n. 1, 2021. Available at: https://ejlt.org/index.php/ejlt/article/view/814. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
BENCH, Bar &. Arbitration Bar of India constitutes five task forces on ethics, AI, inclusion and others. Bar and Bench - Indian Legal news. Available at: https://www.barandbench.com/news/arbitration-bar-of-india-constitutes-five-task-forces-on-ethics-ai-inclusion-and-others. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
BERGER, Klaus Peter; JENSEN, J. Ole. Due process paranoia and the procedural judgment rule: a safe harbour for procedural management decisions by international arbitrators. Arbitration International, v. 32, n. 3, p. 415–435, 2016. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/arbint/aiw020. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
BORN, Gary B. International Commercial Arbitration. [s.l.]: Kluwer Law International B.V., 2021.
BYRNE, Patrick T. Learning from the past – how ai′s predictive analytics will change the landscape of international arbitration. 40 under 40 International Arbitration, v. 2024, p. 353–366, 2024.
COLORADO, Orlando F.C. The Future of International Arbitration in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. Journal of International Arbitration, v. 40, n. 3, p. 301–342, 2023.
CONVENTION, New York. United Nations Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (New York, 10 June 1958). Available at: https://www.newyorkconvention.org/english. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
EIDENMUELLER, Horst; VARESIS, Faidon. What is an Arbitration? Artificial Intelligence and the Vanishing Human Arbitrator. 2020. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3629145. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
EVANS, David; GUILLON, Stacy; LOSEY, Ralph; et al. Dispute Resolution Enhanced: How Arbitrators and Mediators Can Harness Generative AI. Dispute Resolution Journal, v. 78, n. 1, p. 57–92, 2024.
FLORESCU, Cristina Ioana. The Interaction Between AI (Artificial Intelligence) and IA (International Arbitration): Technology as the New Partner of Arbitration. Revista Română de Arbitraj, v. 18, n. 1, p. 42–73, 2024.
GAILLARD, Emmanuel. Legal Theory of International Arbitration. In: [s.l.]: Brill, 2010. Available at: https://brill.com/display/title/18822. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
HUDANI, Zafira. The Benefits and Challenges to Having Artificial Intelligence in Alternative Dispute Resolution. Dispute Resolution Journal, v. 78, n. 2, p. 205–211, 2024.
ICC. Information Technology in International Arbitration. [s.l.]: International Chamber of Commerce, 2017. Available at: https://iccwbo.org/news-publications/arbitration-adr-rules-and-tools/information-technology-international-arbitration-report-icc-commission-arbitration-adr/. Accessed on: 19 may 2025.
ICC. Leveraging Technology for Fair, Effective and Efficient International Arbitration Proceedings. [s.l.]: International Chamber of Commerce, 2022. Available at: https://iccwbo.org/news-publications/arbitration-adr-rules-and-tools/icc-arbitration-and-adr-commission-report-on-leveraging-technology-for-fair-effective-and-efficient-international-arbitration-proceedings/. Accessed on: 19 may 2025.
KC, Nigel Blackaby; KC, Constantine Partasides; REDFERN, Alan; et al. Redfern and Hunter on International Arbitration. Seventh Edition, Seventh Edition. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2022.
KERRIGAN, Charles (Org.). Artificial Intelligence: Law and Regulation. [s.l.]: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2022. Available at: https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781800371712/9781800371712.xml. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
KIRBY, Jennifer. International Arbitration and Artificial Intelligence: Ideas to Improve the Written Phase of Arbitral Proceedings. Journal of International Arbitration, v. 40, n. 6, p. 657–666, 2023.
ŁĄGIEWSKA, Magdalena; BHATIA, Vijay K. International Arbitration in the Digital World. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law - Revue internationale de Sémiotique juridique, v. 37, n. 3, p. 821–827, 2024. Available at: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11196-024-10135-1. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
LAUKEMANN, Björn. Alternative Dispute Resolution and Artificial Intelligence. In: HESS, Burkhard; OTHERS (Orgs.). Comparative Procedural Law and Justice. [s.l.: s.n.], 2024. Available at: https://www.cplj.org/publications/9-5-alternative-dispute-resolution-and-artificial-intelligence. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
LOEB, Jonathan. Arbitrators, Decision Making, and Generative AI. ASA Bulletin, v. 41, n. 4, p. 831–840, 2023.
MOREIRA, João Ilhão; ZHANG, Jiawei. ChatGPT as a fourth arbitrator? The ethics and risks of using large language models in arbitration. Arbitration International, v. 41, n. 1, p. 71–84, 2025. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/arbitration/article/41/1/71/7764018. Accessed on: 8 may 2025.
O’MALLEY, Nathan. Rules of Evidence in International Arbitration: An Annotated Guide. [s.l.]: Taylor & Francis, 2019.
ONGENAE, Kevin; PIERS, Maud. Procedural Formalities in Arbitration: Towards a Technologically Neutral Legal Framework. Journal of International Arbitration, v. 38, n. 1, p. 27–58, 2021.
ONYEFULU, Annabelle O. Artificial Intelligence in International Arbitration: A Step Too Far? Arbitration: The International Journal of Arbitration, Mediation and Dispute Management, v. 89, n. 1, p. 56–77, 2023.
PAISLEY, Kathleen; SUSSMA, Edna. Artificial Intelligence Challenges and Opportunities for International Arbitration. NYSBA New York Dispute Resolution Lawyer, v. 11, n. 1, p. 35–40, 2018. Available at: https://sussmanadr.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/artificial-intelligence-in-arbitration-NYSBA-spring-2018-Sussman.pdf.
PETILLION, Flip. Responsible Use of AI Tools in the Arbitration. b-Arbitra | Belgian Review of Arbitration, v. 2024, n. 2, p. 397–427, 2024.
PIERS, Maud; CARLOTAOSAER, Hannah. The Future is Now! Conference on Blockchain, Metaverse, Web3 and (What It Really Means For) Arbitration: Key Take-Aways. b-Arbitra | Belgian Review of Arbitration, v. 2023, n. 2, p. 632–636, 2023.
PRAŠTALO, Boris. Arbitration Tech Toolbox: AI as an Arbitrator: Overcoming the “Black Box” Challenge? Available at: https://arbitrationblog.kluwerarbitration.com/2024/08/23/arbitration-tech-toolbox-ai-as-an-arbitrator-overcoming-the-black-box-challenge/. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
RAFIQUE, Maroof. Why Artificial Intelligence Is a Compatible Match for Arbitration. Arbitration: The International Journal of Arbitration, Mediation and Dispute Management, v. 88, n. 2, p. 310–320, 2022.
SCHERER, Maxi C. Artificial Intelligence in Arbitral Decision-Making: The New Enlightenment? In: BULL, Cavinder; MALINTOPPI, Loretta; ET AL. (Orgs.). Arbitration’s Age of Enlightenment? [s.l.]: Kluwer Law International, 2023, v. 21, p. 683–694. (ICCA Congress Series No. 21).
SCHERER, Prof Maxi. Artificial Intelligence and Legal Decision-Making: The Wide Open? Study on the Example of International Arbitration. 2019. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3392669. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
SCHERER, Prof Maxi. International Arbitration 3.0 – How Artificial Intelligence Will Change Dispute Resolution. 2018. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3377234. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
SCHROEDER, Hans-Patrick; JUNGE, Wolfgang. Tribunal secretaries re-examined—comparative legal framework, best practices, and terms of appointment. Arbitration International, v. 38, n. 1–2, p. 21–41, 2022. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/arbint/aiac004. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
SETZU, Mattia; GUIDOTTI, Riccardo; MONREALE, Anna; et al. GLocalX - From Local to Global Explanations of Black Box AI Models. Artificial Intelligence, v. 294, p. 103457, 2021. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0004370221000084. Accessed on: 13 jun. 2025.
SHETTY, Priyanka; CHAUHAN, Aditya S. Navigating the Frontier: Assessing the Benefits and Limitations of AI Integration in International Arbitration. BCDR International Arbitration Review, v. 10, n. 1, p. 23–58, 2023.
SMIT, Robert Hugh. The Future of Science and Technology In International Arbitration: The Next Thirty Years. In: BREKOULAKIS, Stavros; LEW, Julian D.M.; ET AL. (Orgs.). The Evolution and Future of International Arbitration. [s.l.]: Kluwer Law International, 2016, v. 37, p. 365–378.
SMUTNY, Abby Cohen; NAIRAC, Charles; GALLAGHER, Norah. 2025 International Arbitration Survey – The path forward: Realities and opportunities in arbitration. [s.l.]: White & Case LLP and Queen Mary University, 2025. Available at: https://www.whitecase.com/insight-our-thinking/2025-international-arbitration-survey. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
STEFER, Dominik; FRICKE, Victoria. From algorithms to awards: exploring the technological and legal boundaries of AI’s contributions to the work of arbitrators. Arbitration International, v. 41, n. 1, p. 49–70, 2025. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/arbitration/article/41/1/49/7958721. Accessed on: 8 may 2025.
SVAMC. SVAMC Publishes Guidelines on the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Arbitration – Silicon Valley Arbitration & Mediation Center. Available at: https://svamc.org/svamc-publishes-guidelines-on-the-use-of-artificial-intelligence-in-arbitration/. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
TERAMURA, Nobumichi; TRAKMAN, Leon. Confidentiality and privacy of arbitration in the digital era: pies in the sky? Arbitration International, v. 40, n. 3, p. 277–306, 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/arbint/aiae017. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
The Updated State of AI Regulations for 2025. JD Supra. Available at: https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/the-updated-state-of-ai-regulations-for-7595032/. Accessed on: 7 aug. 2025.
The Artificial Intelligence and Data Act (AIDA) – Companion document. Available at: https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/innovation-better-canada/en/artificial-intelligence-and-data-act-aida-companion-document. Accessed on: 7 aug. 2025. Last Modified: 2025-01-31.
WAHAB, Mohamed S. Abdel. Welcome to the Future: The AI Arbitrator – An Unwelcomed Reality or Science Fiction? In: BREKOULAKIS, Stavros; WEERAMANTRY, Romesh; ET AL. (Orgs.). Achieving the Arbitration Dream: Liber Amicorum for Professor Julian D.M. Lew KC. [s.l.]: Kluwer Law International, 2023, p. 305–316.
WAQUAR, Mahnoor. The Use of AI in Arbitral Proceedings. Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution, v. 37, n. 3, p. 344, 2022.
WILINSKI, Piotr; DURBAS, Maciej. Data Mining, Text Analytics and International Commercial Arbitration. 2021. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3907383. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
WOOD, Jonathan. Brave New AI World. The Resolver, v. 2024, n. 1, p. 2–2, 2024.
XU, Yongjun; LIU, Xin; CAO, Xin; et al. Artificial intelligence: A powerful paradigm for scientific research. The Innovation, v. 2, n. 4, p. 100179, 2021. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666675821001041. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
YILDIRIM, Ahmet Cemil. The use of technology in case management in international investment arbitration: a realistic approach. Arbitration International, v. 40, n. 2, p. 233–250, 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/arbint/aiae010. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
ZAFAR, Ammar. Balancing the scale: navigating ethical and practical challenges of artificial intelligence (AI) integration in legal practices. Discover Artificial Intelligence, v. 4, n. 1, p. 27, 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44163-024-00121-8. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
ZEKOS, Georgios I. AI in Arbitration and Courts. In: ZEKOS, Georgios I (Org.). Advanced Artificial Intelligence and Robo-Justice. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2022, p. 321, 340.
Arbitration Rules. Available at: https://iccwbo.org/dispute-resolution/dispute-resolution-services/arbitration/rules-procedure/2021-arbitration-rules/. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
Arbitration and AI – friends or foes? Available at: https://www.mccarthy.ca/en/insights/blogs/techlex/arbitration-and-ai-friends-or-foes. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
CoCounsel: One GenAI assistant for professionals. Available at: https://www.thomsonreuters.com/en/cocounsel. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
Emily Hay to co-chair the ICC Commission on Arbitration and ADR’s New Task Force on AI in International Dispute Resolution. Available at: https://www.arb-boutique.com/news/emily-hay-to-co-chair-the-icc-commission-on-arbitration-and-adrs-new-task-force-on-ai-in-international-dispute-resolution. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
EU Artificial Intelligence Act | Up-to-date developments and analyses of the EU AI Act. Available at: https://artificialintelligenceact.eu/. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
Home | Clearbrief. Available at: https://clearbrief.com. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (1985), with amendments as adopted in 2006 | United Nations Commission On International Trade Law. Available at: https://uncitral.un.org/en/texts/arbitration/modellaw/commercial_arbitration. Accessed on: 11 jun. 2025.
What are AI hallucinations? | Google Cloud. Available at: https://cloud.google.com/discover/what-are-ai-hallucinations. Accessed on: 12 jun. 2025.
WHITE & CASE LLP. AI Watch: Global regulatory tracker - China. Available at: https://www.whitecase.com/insight-our-thinking/ai-watch-global-regulatory-tracker-china. Accessed on: 7 aug. 2025.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Revista Brasileira de Alternative Dispute Resolution - Brazilian Journal of Alternative Dispute Resolution - RBADR
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
No royalties or other compensation shall be due for the publication of the works.
The opinions expressed by the authors of the articles and reviews are their sole responsibility.
